Four approaches to dark matter

As J. Duffield once pointed out, people often say, gravitational anomalies are evidence for dark matter, but they aren’t. Dark matter is a hypothesis that attempts to explain the evidence. The evidence is the gravitational anomaly, instead. The dark matter phenomena can be explained in context of existing theories at least four ways, which appear nearly equivalent phenomenologically. The another approach, based on dispersion in particle field based is illustrated here:

1. The simplest explanation of dark matter (DM) is based on AWT, by which every gravity field is a result of density gradient of Aether. At the case of massive bodies the highest density gradient exists just at the surface of massive object. This density gradient is a source of additional weak gravity field of negative curvature, which attracts and collects the particles of negative surface too, the particles of antimatter in particular - which is one of the ways, in which such interpretation of DM may be tested.
   
   
   
   From AWT follows, the idea of gravitational singularity of general is conceptually wrong, as every high curvature of Aether density would manifests like another source of matter density, which would balance the singularity at the center. This is a direct consequence of gradient driven reality (i.e. the fact, nature doesn't like jumps and steps).
   
   
   
2. Another explanation may be based on general relativity in connection to mass-energy equivalence. We can consider again, maximal curvature of space-time of every massive object exists at the surface of this object. This curvature is equivalent to energy density of space-time, which is equivalent to mass density by E=mc^2 formula (this approach was formalized by J. Bekenstein and Rudi V. Nieuwenhove recently.) This additional mass density balances the curvature of the space-time, which has caused gravity field originally.
   
   
   
   Note that large space-time curvature at the surface of massive object will lead to violation of buoyancy condition, because mass/energy density may become higher here, then at the center of massive object - which would lead to undulations of space-time and indeterministic quantum mechanics behavior - so it suggests a route, how to implement quantum gravity solution, at least locally.
   
   
3. Another model of dark matter may be based on general relativity and concept of omnidirectional Universe expansion. The Lense-Thirring effect is based on constant speed of energy spreading in curved space-time, which leads to reference frame dragging. If we introduce an omnidirectional space-time expansion, it will be pronounced the more, the more the space-time is curved already. This will gradually lead to freezing of energy spreading in expanding space-time, which will therefore move like single body from distant observer perspective. For example, Pioneer anomaly is based on acceleration, which is proportional to product of Hubble constant and speed of light. It can serve as an indicia, the limited speed of light and omnidirectional expansion of space-time itself is sufficient for explanation of dark matter behavior.
   
   The surface-tension model of AWT is still more intuitive here, though: we can imagine, the gravity field of galaxy behaves like single giant water droplet, the surface of which is behaving like water surface. And energy spreads always slower at the water surface, then through underwater or above the surface. It means, at surface layer of every gradient of gravity field the light or gravity spread in slower speed, then at the bulk. The space-time moves here like more dense and rigid body, which we can observe by rotational curves of individual stars at the galactic boundaries.
   
4. The most abstract explanation of dark matter phenomena may be based on pure geometry of omnidirectional space-time expansion, where the volume of every area of space-time increases faster, then its surface. Because geometry of energy spreading is given by Lagrangian (which follows from diffusional Aether model on background), the energy spreading through bulk (via longitudinal waves) switches itself into surface spreading (via transversal waves) in less or more distant perspective - thus creating a new reference frame, because human creatures can consider only surface transversal waves in causal energy spreading at distance.
   

The problem of math models is, they become poorly conditioned, when large number of parameters or postulates is involved. As we can see, even qualitative models may lead to similar results here - so it may be difficult to distinguish between then. The increasing number of various theories becomes a brake of the intersubjective understanding of reality, after then - which isn't quite accidental here, because dark matter is a quantum gravity phenomena and a manifestation of hidden dimensions of space-time. We cannot have a formal model of gravity based on quantum mechanics, while retaining full determinism of general relativity. Mainstream physics was trapped in determinism of consecutive logics, on which formal math is based.

AWT and room temperature supersolidity

How AWT, tin cry, snow avalanche, liquid crystals and helium supersolid may be related mutually? Well, by emergence of many instances of surface quantum phenomena into macroscopic bulk effect. The fact, helium doesn't freeze at room pressure even at the absolute zero temperature is a direct evidence of Aether character of vacuum, which exhibit a Brownian motion, which keeps the nuclei of helium atoms in "aethernal" motion (so called the "zero-point energy" or ZPE), by the same way, like pollen particles in water. Only religious refusal of Aether concept during last one hundred years prohibited the mainstream physicists to realize this apparent connection. The remarkable fact here is, zero point energy of vacuum originated at the Planck scale level (1.6 x 10E-35 meters) manifests in the way, which is observable by naked eye at the human scale (3 x 10E-3 meters) - i.e. over thirty orders of scale magnitude - which is truly amazing!



By AWT the supersolidity is a quantum analogy of liquid crystals or ice regelation. Did you notice, how fresh cold snow crackles and crunches under your feet? A supersolidity takes place here - just in quite limited extent, indeed. The trick is, the surface of helium-4 crystals isn't dry in certain range of low temperatures, as it's being covered by thin layer of molten superfluid helium, which lubricates them by the same way, like surface of snowflakes. In thin a few nanometers thick layers so called ballistic transport mechanism takes place. It can be called a "low distance superconductivity" of "low distance superfluidity". We can observe this in thin layers of graphene or semiconductors even at room temperature: the electrons aren't moving' continuously here, but in small jumps, during which they're behaving like boson condensate. This is a result of geometric degeneration of quantum wave, which is constrained in thin layer like particle in 1D box - so called quantum tunneling can take place here. A real sample of solid helium is presented bellow - it requires the temperatures bellow -272.2 ºC and over 40 atmosphere pressure to exists:



The same mechanism occurs in thin surface layers of snow or ice, where it is magnified by large number of crystalline particles involved. The fluid moves in thin quantum vortices along surface of crystals by mechanism, which is similar to domino effect. The same effect is responsible for anomalous slipperiness of ice and ice regelation. And of course, it occurs in solid helium in much more pronounced way, because of low temperature. It means, the fluid / solid mixture of helium crystals is not completely superfluous, but it responds to small deformations freely. But we can observe it even in another systems in smaller extent, for example the so called "tin cry" (sound sample) is the bulk phenomena of the same category.



The helium-4 differs from helium-3 in scope of supersolidity. Atoms of helium-3 are non-symmetric due the odd numbers of nucleons, which effectively means, ballistic transport remains constrained to surface of crystals and dislocations inside of frozen helium. The symmetrical atoms of helium-4 are adsorbed to these surfaces preferably, as they condense more easily - so they're killing the effect here like every impurity, which prohibits a free motion along surface of crystalline domains. The surface character of supersolidity in helium-3 manifests by limited temperature range, in which this remarkable effect can take place - at temperature bellow 1K the surface layer of molten helium freezes and supersolidity disappear. The water molecules are highly polarized in charge, so that the surface phenomena can take place in -52 ºC to 0 ºC temperature range, whereas some larger rod-like molecules are asymmetric up to level, they're forming a "liquid crystal" in the bulk phase even at highly elevated temperatures.



With compare to above systems, supersolidity of helium-4 is much more subtle phenomena, which occurs at lowest temperature range only, because of high symmetry of 4He atom nuclei. It manifests only at the moment, when number of crystalline domains becomes very high - it means inside of glass phase of helium, prepared by fast cooling. Such glass can be considered as amorphous phase with large amount of tiny dislocations, where the surface quantum phenomena become more pronounced due the large number of surfaces involved. Glass can flow rather quickly at nanoscale, which can be illustrated in experiments with fast healing of thin holes formed by ion bombardment. The flowing of glass is well known from limited lifetime of glass knives, used for ultramicrotomy or from healing of tiny glass cracks, which can be determined by fracture mechanics techniques. Because dislocations inside of glass phase are very small in size, the scope of ballistic transport is quite limited here, which results in "quantum jelly" or "superglass" behavior, rather then "quantum crunching".



These subtle phenomena can become quite significant even at large scales, as they can promote for example the formation of avalanches in mountain areas. It means, a subtle quantum surface effect, which applies to nanometer distances can kill people here due its cumulative effect over large number of particles involved. And this is basically, what the whole AWT is about.

AWT and definition of space

In AWT theory the definition of space depends on definition of space-time, so that the definition of space cannot be separated from definition of time due the mutual symmetry of transversal and longitudinal wave spreading through Aether. This relation is one of most important finding of relativity theory, albeit rather unconscious / ad-hoced at Einstein's times - so that Aether theory extends the understanding of this relation to duality of space and time.

In AWT analogy the space-time is the density gradient, forming water surface. The space dimensions are the directions (space-time dimensions) planparallel to water surface, while the remaining direction (a time dimension) is normal ("perpendicular") to water surface. This model explains naturally the symmetry of space dimension and the asymmetry of time dimension (so called the time arrow), the various number of space and time dimensions and much more.

Surprisingly, nobody has pointed to this trivial analogy in physics after one hundred years or relativity theory development - isn't it somewhat strange? Anyway - it's apparent, both time, both space has a robust meaning in physics. If we admit, here's no space, we should admit, here's no time as well - and how we could explain the tangible difference in time and space symmetry (space has no arrow, so we can move along it rather freely), the various number of spatial and time dimensions of space-time and so on..? If something makes a difference, it must exists, because difference is, what makes things real in AWT.

The causal space-time is the place, where density of Aether exhibits some density gradient, so it can behave like water surface, which can serve for transversal wave spreading, i.e. for causal energy propagating at distance. Therefore the scope of space always correspond the scope of causal time arrow, which is virtually unlimited because of infinite mass/energy density of Aether by definition. Infinite (or zero) things usually doesn't need any further explanation from human perspective. Every fixed number is suspect from strictly causal perspective and as such it needs an even deeper explanation. Until the time is infinite by definition, the space remains infinite, too.



Space is always "empty" by definition, because motion in it doesn't requires, neither excerts an energy. If space could be visible, it would become a observer object in space. No pin-point object can serve both like subject of observation, both like mean of observation at the same moment, from this the deep misunderstanding of Aether concept follows. Aether cannot be observed, until it serves as a luminiferous medium of space-time by definition - therefore the speed of energy spreading is always invariant by definition and it has no reference frame in space. If we are moving under exchange of energy with environment via dispersion or during climbing to hill, we can be sure, we are moving in space-time - not just space. If we could observe space, it would mean, space isn't space anymore. Due the nonlocality of every observer and observation process in space-time (real observer isn't never pinpoint object by the same way, like every observation at distance takes some nonzero time), the emptiness of space is always violated by the same way, like the Lorentz invariance at all space-time scales.

Because scope of space is delimited by scope of transversal energy spreading from local perspective of any observer, the limitation of space (and time) scope is the speed of causal energy spreading from observer, the light speed in particular. Therefore we can say, radius of observable Universe corresponds the speed of light spreading multiplied by age of observable Universe.

Another limitation of space concept is the scope of causal energy spreading along single time dimension. Whenever observer starts to move in another time dimension(s), we are saying, it undergoes a dispersion or compactification. Due the presence of cohesion forces inside of object, dispersion usually begins at surface - so we are saying, it collapses or evaporates. The evaporation of water or meteors during their fall through Earth atmosphere, the evaporation of matter in contact of magnetosphere of magnetars or during fall into black holes are all dispersions of energy wave packet forming observable object from AWT perspective. Therefore inside of observable Universe the space is limited by stability of observer - it cannot cross the boundaries of observable space, or (s)he would follow another dimensions of space, i.e. (s)he would collapse and/or evaporate into smaller particles of matter, or even into pure energy, i.e into radiation.

From symmetry of time arrow follows, every dispersion of matter into smaller particles bellow observer scale is followed by some compactification of smaller particles into large objects above the observer scale. We aren't considering the dispersion or collapse as a traveling in time usually, but this is exactly, what these things means in AWT. Note that the dispersion corresponds the traveling into past, whereas the collapse denotes the traveling into future with respect to omni-directional space-time expansion. The observer space-time scale usually defines the local boundary between both time arrows. Due the breaking of symmetry between insintric and exsintric perspectives (every local object appears like part of global object, inside of which it resides), the symmetry of space-time arrows is violated toward a dispersion from local observer perspective, so we tend to believe, entropy of Universe increases as a whole.

Of course the boundary between time arrows isn't always completely sharp due the particle nature of space-time gradient by the same way, like symmetry between insintric and exsintric perspective (i.e. the boundary between space and observable objects inside it). When symmetry of dispersion is broken, we are talking about refraction, the gravitational lensing in particular. For example dark matter can serve both like space, both like observed object. With compare to various field theories, AWT doesn't require some tangible particles for dark matter to exist. In AWT interpretation the streaks of dark matter can be simply formed by more dense areas of Aether foam. Such dense areas exhibits a refraction, when observed from distance - but from proximity they appear like normal transparent space-time.



The dispersion means, the transversal character of energy spreading and uniqueness of time arrow is violated, at least for some most lightweight particles, like the photons. Because causual energy spreading is mediated by transversal waves, the dispersion is usually followed by birefringence, which means, some portion of photons from some space-time events spreads in different directions in space depending on polarization of wave - which is impossible from strictly causal perspective. The collapse of object into black hole singularity can be understood as a violation of causality as well. Therefore the presence of some observable objects in space is always connected to some violation of causality and increase of number of time arrows - despite of we usually don't realize it. And every evaporation is manifestation of hidden dimensions of space by the same way, like every dispersion of light energy is a direct manifestation of Lorentz symmetry violation. In this way, AWT unifies our fundamental understanding of space and time and various other concepts by concept of particle environment symmetry.

AWT and mechanical models of entanglement

By AWT explanation of quantum entanglement is closely related to wave function collapse. Try to imagine, you're a sailor, who is staying at night on the end of floating wharf, to which some boat is attached. Because night sea is stormy, everything (both sailor, wharf and boat) are wobbling up and down, but in different phases. From the perspective of sailor this boat sways randomly.

The observation of quantum particle is analogous to situation, when sailor touches the boat for a moment, thus exchanging some kinetic energy with it. What will happen, after then? The wharf and boat will begin to oscillate at phase. It means, the sailor will keep his relative position with respect to boat, so he cannot detect any boat wobbling anymore, because he moves by the same way. We can say, the wave motion/function of boat has collapsed from local perspective of that sailor. It still remains undulating from perspective of another observer, though - this is the moment, when relativity takes place in quantum mechanics.

In AWT both particles of observer, both particles of observed object are formed by dense nested clusters of another undulating particles, recursively. At the moment, when observed object exchanges some energy with particles of observer during process of observation, the undulations of both systems aren't independent anymore: their internal fluctuations will undulate at phase, too. Briefly speaking, the observer will get entangled with the particle observed. As the particle doesn't undulate independently from this moment, the corresponding part of their mutual undulations will disappear from observation, because the internal motion of both systems has been synchronized.

This is what we are calling a collapse of wave function during process of observation. The observer and object are now undulating like single body - the common center of mass of both objects is forming a private reference frame, a sort of independent island of reality inside of wave ocean - from this idea the concept of many worlds follows. This state isn't permanent, indeed - due the omnipresent random undulations of environment a process called quantum decoherence will take place, thus breaking the entanglement state and synchronization of observer and observed object.

A more close and natural mechanical analogy of entanglement can be demonstrated for undulating droplets levitating in low gravity conditions (i.e. oil droplets inside of lava lamp or water droplets under diamagnetic levitation, for example). When we split such undulating droplet into two halves by thin wire, the resulting parts will remain undulate at phase with respect to the center of their common mass. The smaller droplets will therefore "remember" the state of original droplet in certain extent, so they can serve as a quabit memory. Such pair will create their own "inertial reference frame" and/or "local universe" by many worlds interpretation. But as we can see - nothing "spooky" is on such entanglement, in fact.

Note that even though we can combine the different droplet pairs with the same surface amplitude or even frequency, such reconnection will not restore the surface wave of original droplet, until the phase of the surface waves of both droplets will not remain exactly the same - from this the quantum cryptography follows. We can see, while this model is very trivial and natural, only common disbelief in Aether models prohibited scientists to consider it a long time ago in explanation of various quantum mechanics phenomena.

AWT and ultra-energetic cosmic rays

This post is an reaction to New Scientist article named "13 things that do not make sense", which was updated recently. Ultra-energetic cosmic rays (UHECR) are exceptional from two reasons:

1. They're most energetic spouts of energy known so far, i.e. of energy densities which becomes close to upper limit of GUT scale.
2. They're propagating over whole universe, i.e. at space-time distance scales close to lower limit of GUT scale.

These two properties enable us to observe 2nd order phenomena, which are not just violating the classical theories - but they're even violating some of their corrections. For example, while special relativity considers, light spreads in constant speed, the cosmic rays exhibits a dispersion on CMB field, which results into violation of Lorentz symmetry, because gamma ray photons spreads in lower speed, then the CMB ones. As the result, gamma rays are absorbed in CMB field at 40 MPsc distance scale, which manifests as so called the GZK limit, which protects terresterial life from gamma rays from nearby supernovae explosions. This dispersion can be even detected directly, because gamma ray flash separates from those formed by visible light during explosions of supernovas - compare the MAGIC observation, for example.

The above is valid just from moderate gamma ray flashes, generated in stellar implosion or collisions. UECRS, which are coming from very distant areas of Universe (fortunately) are formed mostly by collisions of galactic black holes (AGN) and as such they're propagating like bullets or solitons through cosmic space - which effectively means, both visible, both gamma ray portion of remote flash arrives to Earth at the single moment again. The photon pulse of UHECR is distorted and breaks up by its own gravity, condensing into one or more gravitationally localised objects, which are propagating through distant space as a single body without dispersion.

This behavior is essentially welcomed by some string theory proponents, because string theory is basically a particle theory, not a field theory, so it can describe nonlinear effects connected to particles by hidden dimensions concept - but it gets into troubles when explaining of nonlinear field phenomena, like Lorentz symmetry violation in vacuum (being Lorentz symmetry based theory). Various quantum gravity theories - the LQG theory in particular - are dual to string theories from certain perspective, so they become a more successful in description of nonlinear properties of vacuum. This is particularly because the quantum gravity theories are based on combination or general relativity and quantum mechanics, not just a special relativity and quantum mechanics, like string theories - so they can become a bit more general in this point. The soliton behavior of UHECR is explained by various mechanisms, like the axion–photon conversion or by gravitino-neutrino coupling.

By AWT the observation of UHECR can be explained by considering of three facts, which follows from AWT rather directly. The first two points explains, why existing mechanism of gamma ray formation may lead to more energetic flashes, then current theory predicts. The third point explains, why such energetic flashes doesn't suffer gradual dispersion, so we can observe them even over whole universe.

1. The collapse of neutron stars into black holes enables a substantial portion of matter to escape in form of energy
2. The black hole merging exhibits an hysteresis due the surface tension effects of space-time curvature, similar to merging of mercury droplets.
   
3. The short intensive flashes can propagate at long distance in non dispersive way, i.e. like solitons.

From AWT follows, every gradient manifest itself by mass/energy density, even the gradients of gravity field, which is source of spacetime curvature, which surrounds all massive bodies. This behavior leads to supersymmetric phenomena, which manifest itself as a dark matter clouds surrounding massive galaxies. At the case of black holes or large clusters of elementary particles (strangelets) the gradient of gravity field is especially pronounced and it has a character of surface tension of mercury droplets. It means, the merging of black holes isn't so smooth, as follows from unmodified equations of general relativity - black holes tends to form a relatively stable dense clusters, similar to strawberries. We can observe these structures from inside like foamy streaks of dark matter. The same surface tension effects of gravity field curvature are responsible for creation of tetraneutrons, or perhaps pentaquark or more large particle clusters, so called the strangelets during collider experiments.



Merging of black holes considers the formation of thin neck with negative curvature of space, which manifest itself by repulsing antigravity force. By classical theory the antigravity action results into increasing of rotational momentum, which slows down the coalescing of massive bodies into account of gravitational waves (the energy of transversal waves converts into longitudinal ones in process of symmetry breaking). At the moment, when surface tension is overcomed, the black hole coalesce under release of activation energy, which is released in form of longitudinal gravitational waves and transversal waves of gamma radiation.



Even the tiny mercury droplets (which are full of free electrons) exhibits a repulsive force at the distance, which prohibits them in merging due their surface tension. Thus is because their merging requires the formation of thin neck with strong negative curvature, which is always source of repulsive force in nature. At the moment, such droplet will become very close, a suddenly merging occurs, because the negative gradient will change into positive and the repulsive force will change into attractive one. It means, the process of ultra-dense massive bodies proceeds in much more vigorous way (i.e. atemporarily from outer perspective) under radiation of much more energy in both transversal (gamma ray), both longitudinal (i.e. gravity) waves, then relativity theory predicts.



This behavior is in fact the consequence of Aether theory driven by classical mechanics, by which the most pronounced gradient of gravity field remains at the surface, not at the center and it manifests by its own energy density (surface energy). Albeit the mercury droplet behavior of free electrons isn’t very pronounced in metals, it dictates the behavior of chemical bonds between atoms during chemical reactions and charge transfer in semiconductors, which can be interpreted by mercury droplet model in many cases.